Ji Li, Ping Ping Fu, Irene Chow and T. K. Peng, “Reconsider Cross-cultural Differences in Leadership Behaviours, a Perspective of Institutional Symbiosis”

Abstract

This study provided empirical support for Shaver and Scott’s (1991) three-dimensional psychological configuration of person, process and choice for venture creation with a sample of 257 Chinese graduates on their intention of starting a business. Based on existing literature on entrepreneurship and social cognition, the study attempted to establish the relationships between personological characteristics, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and entrepreneurial career choice in an Asian context. As hypothesized, intrinsic rewards, independence, and parental role show a positive and significant effect on entrepreneurial career choice. However, entrepreneurial self-efficacy was found to be the best overall predictor of entrepreneurial career intention By exploring these relationships, the paper offers implications in fostering entrepreneurism and makes a contribution both to the entrepreneurial career literature and the social cognition literature.

Abstract

The intuitively paradoxical research proposition that it could be as difficult for business expatriates to adjust to a similar as to a dissimilar host culture is tested in this study. Based on data from a mail survey, a comparison of American business expatriates in Canada and Germany did not reveal any difference in their extent of adjustment. Besides a significant between-group difference in cultural distance, confirming that the American expatriates perceived Canada as more culturally similar than Germany, no significant inter-group differences were detected for general, interaction, work and psychological adjustment.  Neither was there a difference in the time-related variable; time to proficiency. Although highly tentative, the suggestion that the degree of cultural similarity/dissimilarity may be irrelevant to how easily expatriates adjust is fundamental. Implications for theory, practice and future research of these findings are discussed in detail.

Ji Li, Ping Ping Fu, Irene Chow and T. K. Peng, “Reconsider Cross-cultural Differences in Leadership Behaviours, a Perspective of Institutional Symbiosis”

Abstract

Analyzing the data obtained by the Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness Program (GLOBE), we reconsider the differences in leadership behaviors among managers in Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong and Mainland China.  To explain these differences, we propose a new perspective of institutional symbiosis.  This new perspective helps understand how societal cultures and leadership behaviors evolve or change, which contributes to the institutional theory as well as managerial literature as a whole.   This paper concludes with a discussion on the implications of this new perspective to researchers and practitioners.

Abstract

Integrating hypotheses from the international assignment and domestic stress literatures and applying them to 8,085 expatriates from 63 studies, we report meta-analyses of the determinants and consequences of expatriate adjustment.  We also examine potential moderators and test the U-curve hypothesis about the temporal pattern of adjustment.  Results emphasize the centrality, criticality and complexity of adjustment, strongly supporting linkages in the original Black, Mendenhall and Oddou (1991) model as well as our proposed extensions.

Abstract

Although never formally tested, the traditional assumption in the literature on expatriate management is that the greater the cultural novelty of the host country, the more difficult it would be for the expatriate to adjust. To be able to test this proposition, a mail survey was directed towards Western business expatriates in China. Three sociocultural adjustment variables were examined; general, interaction and work adjustment. Although a negative relationship was hypothesized between cultural novelty and the three adjustment variables, results of the hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed that there was no significant association between them. Although highly tentative, the suggestion that it is as difficult for business expatriates to adjust to a very similar culture as to a very dissimilar culture, is fundamental.  Implications of this potentially crucial finding are discussed in detail.

Abstract

The relationship between perceived organizational politics and work related outcomes together with the moderating effect of participative management and guanxi are examined in a sample of 355 Hong Kong nurses.  Consistent with Western studies, findings indicate that perceptions of organizational politics decrease job satisfaction, affective commitment, normative commitment and work performance and increase neglect behavior and intention to exit.  Participative management weakened the influence of perceptions of organizational politics on job satisfaction, affective commitment and intention to exit.  Guanxi had direct rather than indirect effects on work outcomes.  Comparative data from a small (N – 51) sample of Beijing nurses revealed significant differences between the two regions.

Abstract

To understand the relational context of citizenship behaviors, we draw upon social capital theory to propose and empirically examine a new model of interpersonal citizenship behavior (ICB).  Our focus is on those behaviors that are cooperative actions aimed at helping work colleagues.  From a social capital perspective, we examine the effects of trust, social network characteristics (i.e., network strength, network range, contact frequency, and network size) and relational norms and values (i.e., norm of reciprocity and individualism-collectivism) on ICB within a Chinese context where relationships and networks are especially salient.  With data from a sample of 388 employees of a multinational bank with operations in Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Shanghai, we test hypotheses using multiple hierarchical (moderated) regression analyses.  Direct influences on ICB include interpersonal trust, network strength, and individualism-collectivism.  The cultural elements of norm of reciprocity and individualism-collectivism are both involved in several interactions with all network characteristics except network range.  Implications for researchers and practitioners are discussed.

Abstract

We examine domain-specific and domain-spanning antecedents and outcomes of work-family conflict experienced by expatriates.  Using multiple source data (expatriates and spouses), our results demonstrate that time-based work and family variables contribute most to work-family conflict.  Major outcomes include variables indicative of lower performance effort on the job.

Abstract

Currently, there is little consensus on the requisite individual differences, or the content of effectiveness criteria, for international assignees. This paper describes the collaborative efforts of two teams of researchers who were independently investigating the effects of stable personality traits and dynamic behavioral competencies on the same, three-dimensional structure of effectiveness: psychological (cultural, interaction, and work) adjustment, assignment withdrawal cognitions and (contextual and overall task) performance. Extending a model of cross-culturally relevant individual differences developed by Leiba-O'Sullivan (1999), we describe the results of model tests in three studies. Study 1, using multi-source data from a multinational sample of 182 expatriates stationed in Hong Kong, and matched pairs of their spouses and work colleagues, examined the predictiveness of the "Big Five" personality traits. Study 2 tested the outflow of four dynamic competencies (cultural flexibility, task and people leadership orientation, and ethnocentrism) with self-report data from a sample of 309 Korean expatriates posted around the world. Study 3 was a longitudinal replication of Study 2, using pre-departure and on-assignment data from Japanese expatriate managers sent to overseas positions. Results of correlation and regression analyses testing the direct and indirect effects of individual differences on effectiveness indicated that they had a widespread impact, in a pattern that is sharply divergent from the domestic selection literature. The importance of traits and competencies as differential predictors of adjustment, withdrawal, and performance has implications for both selection and training of expatriates.

Abstract

China could be a challenging destination for Western business expatriates.  However, their extent of adjustment to life and work could be contingent on the size of the location of their assignment. Maybe Westerners more easily adjust to large cities with their more Western-style way of life and consumption patterns than in less Westernized small towns and villages.  To examine this proposition, a mail survey was directed at Western business expatriates assigned to locations of varying size in China. As expected, results showed that the size of the location was positively associated with adjustment to the general non-work environment as well as with work adjustment. Surprisingly, there was no relationship between the size of the location and adjustment to interacting with host nationals, presumably due to language problems.  The distinct implications of these findings are discussed in detail.

Abstract

Based on qualitative focus group data from five countries, we developed a measure of life balance as an alternative approach to viewing synchrony between work-family and work-personal domains.  In this paper we established psychometric properties of the measure, convergent and divergent validity with established measures using data from three international locations.

Abstract

The practice of providing expatriates with cross-cultural training varies widely among business corporations. To examine the proposition that some characteristics of the parent corporation context could be munificent to the practice of providing cross-cultural training, a mail survey was addressed to business expatriates in China. Surprisingly, the results showed no association between corporate size, international stake, and international experience on the one hand and the extent to which the expatriates had received cross-cultural training on the other hand.  Although an ad hoc analysis found a positive relationship between international experience and the provision of sequential cross-cultural training, there was no association between any of the variables depicting corporate context and predeparture or postarrival training. The findings and their implications are discussed in detail.

Abstract

To localize their staff is a common aspiration among foreign firms in China. The capability of foreign companies to build strong local management teams has been identified as crucial for their future success. However, because of the uneven progress so far, it has been suggested that some types of organizations may be better suited to localize than others. To explore this issue, a mail survey was directed at Western business operations in China. Unexpectedly, the results showed that characteristics of the organization in China were not associated with staff localization. On the other hand, as anticipated, the international experience of the parent corporation had a positive relationship with staff localization while the percentage of turnover from foreign operations had a negative association with staff localization. These findings are consistent with what little empirical research there is in this area.

Abstract

Many foreign firms in China intend to localize their business operations. In the process of localization, the incumbent expatriates are key participants, developing, mentoring, coaching and providing development opportunities to local managers. However, to work one self out of a job is not normal practice in the business world and expatriates may be less than enthusiastic about that prospect. Hence, firms aiming to localize their organizations in China may introduce some corporate policies to encourage their expatriates to realize this aspiration. To examine what kind of corporate policies are effective in motivating expatriates to localize, a mail survey was directed to Western business expatriates assigned to China.  Results showed a positive association between localization and corporate policies clearly stating the localization purpose as well with relating expatriate performance assessment to localization. Unexpectedly, there was a negative relationship between localization and corporate policies relating expatriates’ compensation to localization.  Implications of these findings are discussed in detail.

Abstract

Many foreign firms intend to localize their business operations in China. The incumbent expatriates’ ability and willingness to bring about their own replacement is crucial. However, expatriates could be less than enthusiastic about the prospect of making themselves redundant. They may not be mentally prepared for such an endeavour, considering themselves unable or unwilling to localize, impeding such a process. To examine this proposition, a mail survey was directed to Western business expatriates in China. Results showed that there was a negative relationship between localization and expatriates’ unwillingness to localize, because they prefer to stay-on or are of the opinion that localization is not necessary. However, expatriates' perceived inability to localize was not associated with localization.  Considering one self unsuitable to train locals or that it is not one's job to train local employees did not seem to obstruct localization as expected. Implications for firms intending to localize their business operations in China are discussed in detail.

Abstract

Although the standard of English proficiency is rising in China, using English in conversations with Chinese host nationals may be difficult. Therefore, proficiency in the Chinese language, may promote the adjustment of foreign business expatriates in China.  To test this proposition, a mail survey was directed to Western business expatriates assigned to China.  Controlling for the time expatriates had spent in China, results showed that their language ability had a positive association with their sociocultural adjustment, but not with their psychological adjustment. Not surprisingly, this positive relationship was strongest for interaction adjustment and weakest for work adjustment.  The straightforward implications of these clear findings are discussed in detail.

Abstract

Although waning in popularity during recent years, joint ventures are still the largest group of foreign-invested enterprises in China.  Due to the high level of conflict, it is not surprising that so many Sino-foreign joint ventures fail, but rather how any can succeed at all. Encountering such a challenging context, especially the adjustment of Western joint venture managers may benefit from cross-cultural training. To examine this presumption, data was extracted from a survey to Western business expatriates in China.  Having received the same extent of cross-cultural training, results showed that training had a positive association with work adjustment for expatriate managers assigned to joint ventures, but not with work adjustment of expatriates in other types of organizations in China.  Implications of these potentially crucial findings for international firms as well as for further research are discussed.

Abstract

Data on the adjustment of Asian and Western third country nationals as well as Western parent country nationals were extracted from mail surveys directed to business expatriates assigned to China. It was found that the Asian third country nationals were not better adjusted socioculturally compared to the Western third country nationals, nor were they better adjusted in this respect than the Western parent country nationals.  In fact, the reverse was true in terms of work adjustment, where the Asian third country nationals were less well adjusted than both groups of Western expatriates.  Implications of these fundamental and surprising findings for globalizing firms and future research are discussed in detail.

Abstract

The purpose of the study is to examine the complexity of the relationship between work and family domain stressors, structure and support and work-family conflict. In addition to considering the direct effects of domain-specific variables on the forms of work-family conflict (i.e., WIF: work interference with family and FIW: family interference with work), we also examine the reciprocal relationship between these two forms and the interactive effects of work and family domain variables.  To test our hypotheses, we collected multi-source data from 248 employees and their spouses.  Among the proposed work domain antecedents of WIF conflict, time commitment, work role expectation, and position were significant.  Among the proposed family domain antecedents of FIW conflict, family involvement, parental demand and spouse domestic support were significant.  Several moderating relationships were also significant.  Domestic helper support and dual earner family moderated the relationship between WIF conflict and work role expectation and job involvement respectively.  Family friendly policies and supervisor support moderated the relationships between FIW conflict and extended family and family role expectation respectively.  Implication for human resource managers and researcher are discussed.

Abstract

Adopting a mixed qualitative-quantitative approach, we developed scales and tested a model of entrepreneurial career success in Hong Kong, a region embedded in Southeast Asian values. From interviews, we identified several dimensions of entrepreneurial career success and its antecedents. Integrating these findings with those from the literature, and drawing upon human capital theory as our overarching framework, we developed a model of entrepreneurial career success. We then tested the model with a matched set of data from entrepreneurs and their employees in 236 companies. Quantitative data analyses revealed important insights that might stimulate future research.

Abstract

The quest of globalizing business firms to find enough candidates with the requisite skills for foreign assignments may be met by former 'third-culture kids'.  These are individuals who as adolescents have lived in a foreign country for a period of time.  The cultural exposure, at their highly impressionable adolescence, may have made them absorb cultural and behavioral norms developing a cultural frame of references different from, but assembled by the cultures they have been exposed to; establishing a third culture.  Testing this generally held belief empirically, characteristics of a group of British expatriate adolescents in Hong Kong were compared with those of local Hong Kong adolescents and local British adolescents residing in Britain.  Controlling for the effects of age and gender, results showed that the British expatriate adolescents had distinct characteristics in terms of their perceptions of being international as well as their international mobility preferences and consequences.  These findings support the claims and anecdotal evidence of the development of third-cultureness. The far-reaching implications of these results for globalizing firms are discussed.

Abstract

This study examines a model involving income, Money Ethic (MES), pay satisfaction, ethical culture, organizational commitment, sex, job changes, and unethical behavior based on data from 2,338 full-time employees in 12 countries/cultures and tests the notion:  Does Money Ethic (the love of money) or income (money) have a direct and/or indirect impact on unethical behavior?  Results suggested that the love of money had a direct impact on unethical behavior.  The indirect path was also significant:  The love of money caused low pay satisfaction that, in turn, reduced organizational commitment that, in turn, enhanced unethical behavior.  However, income had no impact on either the love of money or unethical behavior.  Thereby, the indirect and direct paths supported the notion:  The love of money is the root of all evil, whereas income is not.  Moreover, men were more obsessed with the love of money than women.  Ethical culture enhanced commitment.  Job changes influenced unethical behavior.  We compared data from 12 countries simultaneously using the model and found cross-cultural differences. 

Abstract

In this paper, we focus on the student study group as a type of learning network.  We investigate whether there are advantages for student participation in study groups and whether there are factors that increase the likelihood of such participation.   Research hypotheses integrated through a path model were derived from the knowledge and learning, community‑of‑practice, network theory, and cultural-values literatures and a path model is proposed.  Data from three countries, two in the Far East and one in the West, showed that two different forms of learning networks, one among students and another between students and professors, have a positive impact on grade performance.  In addition, these networks were predicted by values that reflected an individualistic orientation rather than a collectivistic orientation.  The pedagogical implications of these networks in knowledge acquisition and grade performance are examined in light of the result.

Abstract

A casual visitor to the Philippines may quickly conclude that the society is thoroughly westernised in manner and attitude.  Since nothing could be farther from the truth, anyone dealing with Filipinos in business or otherwise needs to be familiar with the complex value system that intertwines the indigenous Filipino, Chinese, Spanish and American cultures.  Looking beneath the veneer of societal openness and cultural flexibility, there is a uniquely Filipino way of acting in most situations. As seemingly simple behaviours are essentially complicated in intent, an appreciation of the Filipino nature is basic to any understanding of management in the only Christian, English-speaking democracy in Asia.

Abstract

Few studies have delved into career management issues of women on foreign assignments, especially compared to male expatriates. Therefore, a large-scale mail survey was directed towards Western female and male business expatriates in the same host location. Controlling for the effects of differences in the demographic background of the gender groups, we found that female business expatriates could less often meet their career goals within their corporation than their male counterparts. There was also a tentative indication that women may regard their expatriation as a less useful career move than men. Implications of these findings for globalizing firms, female executives and future research are discussed.

Abstract

Male expatriate spouses represent a surprisingly under-researched area, especially given the crucial importance of spousal support to ensure successful expatriate assignments and the increasing trends of both dual-career couples and female business expatriates. To somewhat alleviate this deficiency, forty-six Western female business expatriates assigned to Hong Kong responded to a mail survey. Almost half of them were married and accompanied by their husbands. The tentative results of this highly exploratory study show that, although moderated somewhat by respondents' perceived sufficiency of the extent of corporate support, companies generally failed to support male expatriate spouses. Unfortunately, this main finding is consistent with the results of what little previous research there is on the subject. This can be regarded as an early warning sign to international firms trying to globalize, since there is no reason to believe that the escalating trend of women assigned abroad will not continue given the rising demand for business expatriates. Internationalizing firms need to introduce more corporate support for male expatriate spouses, before reluctance to act in this respect may block their global expansion.

Abstract

Business negotiations in China require patience, tenacity and an in-depth knowledge of Chinese culture and customs. This paper adds to our knowledge of the Chinese psyche by exploring the concept of national feelings and illustrating how they might affect negotiation processes and business relationships. The data are drawn from a large survey of Chinese negotiators (N = 477) in Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou. The results suggest that national feelings need to be taken into account, by both Western and Chinese negotiators, or business negotiations can be severely compromised.

Abstract

Despite an increasing demand for international executives, only the most determined women may get assigned abroad. Will this resolve for a career abroad also help them to become successful in their foreign assignment? To answer this question, Western female business expatriates in Hong Kong responded to a mail survey about their expatriate career intentions and their international adjustment. Controlling for the time they had been assigned to Hong Kong, the results show that the more determined the women are to pursue an expatriate career, the better is their interaction adjustment. This is a fundamental finding, as both the other two dimensions of sociocultural adjustment, general adjustment and work adjustment, are based on interpersonal interactions. Implications of these findings for globalizing firms as well as for their female employees are discussed.

Abstract

Although there has been a rapidly increasing literature on women in international assignments, very little is known about who they are. A large-scale mail survey directed towards female and male business expatriates in Hong Kong directly compared their personal characteristics. As anticipated, results showed that female business expatriates were younger, were less often CEOs, were less frequently married, had less often had any previous expatriate assignment, had shorter time as an expatriate, and had shorter tenure with their parent corporations. It is noteworthy that all personal characteristics of the female expatriates were of a lesser magnitude than that of their male colleagues. Implications of these findings for assigning firms, female employees and future research are discussed in detail.

Abstract

Despite the growing interest in female expatriates, few empirical studies have focussed on corporate career development activities available to women. Given the faltering corporate support for female business expatriates in general, one may presume that such organizational activities are less available to women than to men. To test this proposition, a large number of Western female and male business expatriates assigned to Hong Kong responded to a mail survey. Controlling for differences between the two gender groups, three significant gender differences were found, all indicating a lower availability of these corporate activities to women than to men, partially supporting expectations. These corporate career development activities were fast track programs, individual career counselling and career planning workshops. Implications of these findings for globalizing firms as well as for their female employees are discussed in detail.

Abstract

This paper proposed and empirically examined a conceptual framework for investigating pay satisfaction. Satisfaction with group incentive plans was found to be a distinct dimension of the multidimensional pay satisfaction construct, whereas procedural justice and pay-for-performance perception were found to be its significant determinants. Cross-cultural comparisons were made by data collected from the US and Hong Kong. National culture was found to have direct and moderating effects on pay satisfaction.

Abstract

Despite a host of supportive anecdotal evidence and an increasing demand for business expatriates, prejudiced headquarters' opinions still make women a relatively untapped source for expatriate assignments. To help resolve these contradictions, a large number of Western female and male business expatriates responded to a mail survey in Hong Kong about their international adjustment. Controlling for differences between the two gender groups, there was no gender difference in terms of general adjustment, but female expatriates were found to have higher interaction and work adjustment than their male counterparts. On the other hand, the men experienced a higher degree of psychological adjustment than the women. The important implications for globalizing firms as well as for their female employees of these findings are discussed in detail.

Abstract

This exploratory study empirically examines outcomes of foreign assignments associated with providing or not providing training to expatriate managers. Three modes of training are explored: Predeparture, postarrival and sequential training. A mail survey to expatriates in mainland China included most major Western European countries, the largest contingents being from Germany, Britain and France. The tentative findings suggest that expatriate managers who have received training adjust more quickly in their assignments and are more satisfied with these assignments than those who have not received any training. On the other hand, there was unexpectedly no relationship between training and how successful the managers were in their assignments. Results also indicated that those respondents who had received sequential training were more satisfied with their assignments than those who did not receive any training at all. Implications of these tentative findings for assigning firms and future research are discussed.

Abstract

During an extended period of economic recession for most of the 1990s, broad and striking changes have been made to the Japanese employment system. How fundamental or reversible they are is harder to evaluate. This paper discusses the Japanese employment system and its changes. It is concluded that if the economic recovery prevails, a considerable stabilization of Japanese human resource practices can be expected, although at a higher level of market-oriented flexibility than previously existed. Further, despite the connection between the seniority-based salary system and the lifetime employment regime, more future changes can be expected in the former than the latter. Also in the case of the Japanese system of industrial relations, a safe conclusion is that its main characteristics will most probably be maintained in coming years.

Abstract

Work-family conflict and expatriate adjustment are burgeoning areas of inquiry in the management literature. In this study we examine the antecedents and performance related outcomes of work-family conflict in expatriates. Using multiple source data (expatriates, spouses, and colleagues) in this study, our results demonstrate that both work and family variables contribute to work-family conflict. However, it is family interference with work conflict that emerges as the role predictor of lower performance effort on the job. As a further extension of the extant work-family conflict and expatriate literatures, we performed exploratory tests using Big Five personality variables as moderators of the relationship between work-family conflict and performance.

Abstract

Expatriate assignments are becoming increasingly unattractive to potential candidates making the unwieldy myriad of proposed selection criteria of decreasing practical value to internationally assigning firms. When the issue is more to find anyone willing to do the job rather than selecting the best candidate from a large pool of applicants, maybe basic personal characteristics can better guide corporations in their search for suitable expatriate candidates. To examine this proposition, a large sample of Western business expatriates in Hong Kong responded to a mail survey about their sociocultural and psychological adjustment. The results of the hierarchical regression analysis indicated that age had a positive association with general, interaction and work adjustment of the expatriates as well as psychological adjustment. Gender was not associated with any kind of adjustment whereas being married had a positive relation with work adjustment. The implications for international firms of these results are discussed in detail.

Abstract

Recent studies have lent support to the idea that cultural variables such as power distance can influence management practices, and results found are consistent with expectations derived from cultural frameworks such as Hofstede’s (1980a) and Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s (1961). Building on the concept of power distance as moderator of the participation/organizational outcome relationship, the current study investigates the impact of power distance on the relationship between participation and the outcomes of organizational commitment, job satisfaction, intention to stay, and in-role performance. These relationships were explored using a sample of employees from a Sino-Hong Kong joint venture pharmaceutical manufacturer located in Guangzhou, PRC. Results indicated that, as hypothesized, the influence of participation on the outcome variables of organizational commitment, job satisfaction, intention to stay, and performance was moderated by individual level of power distance. A positive relationship between participation and each outcome variable was observed for the low power distance subjects, but there was virtually no relationship for those with high power distance. These results suggest that the opportunity to participate can have a positive impact on attitudinal and behavioral outcomes for low power distance subjects but does not seem to influence high power distance subjects. Limitations and further implications for theory and practice are discussed.

Abstract

We build upon the emerging workplace aggression literature by addressing several definitional and conceptual issues associated with non-violent forms of aggression directed toward individuals (as opposed to property). Based on our qualitative analyses of descriptions of aggressive encounters written by employees in Hong Kong and the United States, we developed a typology of workplace aggression. Four types of aggression emerged: verbal abuse, deliberate actions to annoy/irritate, emotional outbursts and physical harm. We then conducted quantitative (Chi-square) tests to assess the association between these types of aggression and other key constructs involving characteristics of the aggressor and potential organizational predictors. These tests revealed several significant relationships among the study’s variables. Verbal abuse and emotional outbursts were generally much less severe than physical harm. Various aspects of the aggressor, such as position relative to the victim, frequency of contact, perceived goal (to harm or obtain something), and emotional state (degree and type) were associated with different aggression types. Most aggressive events were attributed to organizational factors, and a more refined analyses of these factors indicated that type of job duty was strongly associated with the severity of the aggression, the goal of the aggressor and whether or not the aggression was private or public. Differences in many of the aggression factors (types, aggressor characteristics, and organizational context) across cultures highlight the importance of incorporating cross-cultural comparative studies in the early phases of theory development. The results of this exploratory study provide a strong foundation for future empirical investigations of workplace aggression.

Abstract

We conducted a two-study investigation of milder forms of aggressive workplace behaviors experienced by employees in the United States and Hong Kong. In Study 1, we adopted a qualitative method to develop a measure of aggressive behaviors in the workplace. In Study 2, we administered the questionnaire to participants based on Study 1 results. After establishing psychometrically sound measures across the two cultures, we tested differences in levels of milder aggressive workplace behaviors in the U.S. and Hong Kong. We then examined five organizational antecedents and three consequences of verbal abuse, deliberate actions to irritate or annoy, and nonverbal outbursts displayed by coworkers, supervisors, and subordinates in the workplace. Relationships between the behaviors and workgroup size and gender evaluation were moderated by participants’ geographic region.